Reported speech: orders, requests, advice

 

‘Tell’ and ‘Ask’ with infinitives

 

We can use ‘tell’ or ‘ask’ with infinitives to report orders or requests:

 

Jim’s mum: Wash your hands! Dinner’s ready!

Jim’s mum: Can you wash your hands? Dinner’s ready!

• She told him to wash his hands.
• She asked him to wash his hands.

 

Jim’s mum: Don’t touch that pan – it’s hot!

• She told him not to touch the pan.
• She asked him not to touch the pan.

 

The structure here is:

 

tell + someone + (not) to do something

ask + someone + (not) to do something

 

 

‘Ask for something’

 

Jim: Mum, can I have some bread?

Jim’s sister: Could I have a glass of water?

• Jim asked her for some bread.
• Jim’s sister asked for a glass of water.

 

The structure here is:

 

ask (someone) for + object

 

 

Other reporting verbs

 

We can also use a lot of other verbs in reported speech. Some of them follow the same pattern:

• She ordered him to wash his hands.
• She advised him to wash his hands.
• She ordered him not to touch the pan.
• She advised him not to touch the pan.

 

Come on. Eat your vegetables. They’re good for you!

Remember to wash the dishes.

Don’t forget!

• She persuaded him to eat his vegetables.
• She reminded him to wash the dishes.
• She warned him not to forget.

 

Sometimes the pattern is different:

 

OK, Mum.  I’ll wash the dishes.

• He promised to wash the dishes.

NOT: He promised her to wash the dishes.

 

Why don’t you watch TV?

• He suggested (that) she should watch TV.
• He suggested (that) she watch TV.

 

You can also say:

• He suggested watching TV.

NOT: He suggested her to watch TV.

NOT: He suggested to watch TV.

Reported speech: tenses

 

Tenses

 

1. Present Simple and Present Continuous

In general, present tenses in direct speech change to past tenses in reported speech.

 

Julia:

‘I live in London.’

‘I’m taking a course in German this year.’

• Julia said she lived in London.
• Julia said she was taking a course in German that year.

 

2. ‘Can’ and ‘Will’

 

‘Can’ and ‘will’ change to ‘could’ and ‘would’.

 

‘I can speak English and French.’

‘My German course will finish next year.’

• Julia said she could speak English and French.
• Julia said her German course would finish the following year.

 

3. Past Simple, Past Continuous and Past Perfect

 

PAST SIMPLE → PAST PERFECT

PAST CONTINUOUS → PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

PAST PERFECT – DOES NOT CHANGE

 

‘I finished my Master’s degree last year.’

‘I was reading your company’s website when I decided to send in my CV.’

• Julia said she had finished her Master’s degree the previous year.
• Julia said she had been reading the company’s website when she decided to send in her CV.

 

4. Present Perfect Simple and Continuous

 

These tenses change like this:

 

‘I have spent time in Japan.’

‘I have been working as a secretary for two years.’

• Julia said she had spent time in Japan.
• Julia said she had been working as a secretary for two years.

 

5. Past Modal Verbs

 

In general, past modal verbs don’t change.

 

Interviewer:

‘We should be in touch next week.’

‘We might have some more questions.’

• The interviewer said they should be in touch the following week.
• The interviewer said they might have some more questions.

 

Note: It is not always necessary to change the tense. If the situation is still the same, you can leave verb in the original tense: – ‘I can speak English and French.’ Julia said she can / could speak English and French.   – ‘I finished my Master’s degree last year.’ Julia said she finished / had finished her Master’s degree the previous year.

 

‘Here and now’ words

 

When we change direct speech to reported speech, we may need to make other natural, logical changes:

 

1. Pronouns / Possessive Adjectives

 

‘I finished my Master’s degree last year.’

• Julia said she had finished her Master’s degree the previous year.

 

I → SHE

MY → HER

 

2. Time

 

LAST YEAR → THE LAST YEAR / THE PREVIOUS YEAR

 

‘I’m taking a course in German this year.’

• Julia said she was taking a course in German that year.

 

THIS YEAR → THAT YEAR

 

‘My German course will finish next year.’

• Julia said her German course would finish the following year.

 

NEXT YEAR → THE NEXT YEAR / THE FOLLOWING YEAR

 

3. Place

 

HERE → THERE

 

Julia:

‘I’ve been living here for six months.’

• Julia said that she had been living there / in that place for six months.

I’ll meet you here tomorrow for a coffee.’

• Julia said she would meet us at the cafe the following day for a coffee.

 

Other common changes include:

 

Direct Speech	→	Reported Speech
today	→	that day / on Tuesday
yesterday	→	the previous day / the day before / on Monday
tomorrow	→	the next day / the following day / on Wednesday
now	→	then / at that time

 

Reported speech: overview

 

Direct and Reported Speech

 

Sam: I’m having a shower.

 

If you want to tell someone else what Sam said, you have two options:

 

a) You can repeat his words:

• Sam said, ‘I’m having a shower.’

This is called direct speech. (We use quotation marks to indicate direct speech.)

 

b) You can use reported speech:

• Sam said (that) he was having a shower.

(You don’t need to include ‘that’.)

 

‘Say’ and ‘Tell’

 

We can also use ‘tell’ in direct and reported speech.  

 

Be careful with the grammar:

We usually use ‘tell’ with a personal object:

• Sam told me, ‘I’m having a shower.’
• Sam told me (that) he was having a shower.

NOT: Sam told, ‘I’m having a shower.’

NOT: Sam told (that) he was having a shower.

 

We don’t usually use ‘say’ with a personal object:

NOT: He said me, ‘I’m having a shower.’

NOT: He said me (that) he was having a shower.

 

 

Changing direct speech to reported speech

 

Compare the examples:

• Sam said, ‘I’m having a shower.’
• Sam said (that) he was having a shower.

Apart from the punctuation, the two main differences are:

1. the change of pronoun (‘I’ → ‘he’)
2. the change of tense (‘Present Continuous’ → ‘Past Continuous’)

 

These types of changes are typical in reported speech.

 

Present tenses usually change to past tenses:

 

Present Simple → Past Simple

Present Continuous → Past Continuous

 

We use ‘if‘ to introduce reported yes-no questions and questions with or.

 

 

Note: However, it is not always necessary to change the tense. If the situation is still the same, you can leave verb in the present tense:   Sam: I’m having a shower. If Sam is still in the shower when you tell someone else, you could say: Sam said (that) he is having a shower.

 

‘Tell’ or ‘Ask’ with Infinitives

 

We can also use ‘tell’ or ‘ask’ with infinitives for orders or requests:

 

Sam’s sister: Hurry up!

• She told him to hurry up.
• She asked him to hurry up.

The structures here are:

 

tell + someone + to do something

ask + someone + to do something

 

Sam’s sister: Don’t take too long!

• She told him not to take too long.
• She asked him not to take too long.

 

In the negative:   tell + someone + not + to do something ask + someone + not + to do something

 

The third conditional

 

We use the third conditional to talk about unreal situations in the past.

 

We use the third conditional to talk about:

1. things that did not happen,
2. situations like dreams or wishes with no possibility of coming true.

 

The third conditional contains:

1. An ‘if’ clause
2. A main/result clause

 

The third conditional uses the Past Perfect in the ‘if’ clause and the Past Participle in the result clause.

 

If/condition Clause	Result Clause
Past perfect	Would have + past participle

• If she had won the lottery, (‘if’/condition clause) + she would have bought a new house. (result clause)
• I would have told her about it (result clause) + if I had known. (‘if’/condition clause)

 

When we use the third conditional, we are talking about an impossible past condition. The condition was not and cannot ever be true because it is over and in the past. This also means the result is impossible because the condition is impossible.

 

Just like the second conditional, the ‘if’/condition clause has a comma at the end if it comes first. There is no comma if the ‘if’/condition clause comes second, after the result clause.

• I would have done better on the test if I had studied harder. (no comma needed because the “if” clause comes second)
• If you had tried harder, you would have won. (a comma comes after the “if” clause when it is first)

 

We can make positive, negative, and interrogative sentences using the third conditional. We can also use ‘should have‘, ‘could have‘, and ‘might have‘.

• If we had worked better as a team, we might have won the tournament.
• You could have bought that toy if you had saved your money.
• If it had rained yesterday, what would you have done?
• Your day would have been better if you had not stayed up all night playing games.

 

We can also use the contracted form in each clause.

• You could’ve bought that computer if you’d saved your money.
• If she’d tried harder, she’d have done better.
•  If you hadn’t slept in, you wouldn’t have missed your flight.

 

Let’s summarize:

ZERO CONDITIONAL: General truths
If + Simple Present	Simple Present
If this thing happens	that thing happens.
FIRST CONDITIONAL: A possible condition and its probable result
If + Simple Present	Simple Future
If this thing happens	that thing will happen.
SECOND CONDITIONAL: A hypothetical condition and its probable result
If + Simple Past	Present Conditional or Present Continuous Conditional
If this thing happened	that thing would happen. OR  that thing would be happening.
THIRD CONDITIONAL: An unreal past condition and its probable result in the past
If + Past Perfect	Perfect Conditional
If this thing had happened	that thing would have happened.OR that thing would have been happening.

 

The second conditional

 

We use the second conditional or type 2 conditional in two ways:

1. To talk about events in the future that are probably not going to happen.
2. To talk about impossible or unreal situations in the present (hypothetical).

 

Just like the first conditional, the second conditional is made up of two clauses:

1. An ‘if’ clause
2. A main clause

• If it snowed this July (‘if’ clause/condition) + I would be so surprised. (main/result clause)
• I would come in last (main/result clause) + if I ran a marathon. (‘if’ clause/condition)

The ‘if’ clause states the condition while the main clause states the result of the condition – if it were true.

 

The ‘if’ clause uses the Past Simple tense. The main clause (result clause) uses the Present conditional (would + verb) or Present Continuous conditional (would + be + -ing verb).

 

If Clause (Condition)	Main Clause (Result)
If + Past Simple	Would + verb

• If I were you, I would wear a helmet. (condition = if I were you – which is untrue and impossible)
• I would donate all my money to charity if I had millions of dollars. (condition = if I had millions of dollars – which is unlikely; result = I would donate all my money to charity.)
• I would be having a good time if I met my friends.

 

The order of the clauses is not important. We can put the ‘if’ clause first or second. However, since the ‘if’ clause is a subordinate clause, (can’t stand alone as a full sentence), we should put a comma after the ‘if’ clause when it comes before the main clause (result clause).

• If I could fly, I would fly around the world. (the ‘if’ clause is first, thus a comma follows)
• I would end your pain if I had the cure for cancer. (the ‘if’ clause is second, thus no comma is needed)

 

We can also use modals (could, might, should) in the main clause of second conditional sentences.

• If we made more money, we might take more vacations.
• He couldn’t go to the concert if you gave him a ticket.
• I could quit my job if I won the lottery.

 

We can make positive, negative, and interrogative sentences using the second conditional.

• Jamie wouldn’t go if you invited him.
• If we weren’t away, we would go to the party.
• What would you do if a meteor hit the earth right now?

 

Note: The word ‘if’ is a common feature of conditional statements. However, it is also possible to use words like ‘provided’ and ‘as long as’ in conditional structures. We use them with similar meaning when we want to emphasize the condition.  Provided you pay me back soon (condition), I will lend you the money. I think I’ll continue studying English, as long as I have the time to do so (condition).

 

Zero and first conditionals

 

Conditionals are used to describe the result of something that might happen in the present or in the future.

 

They usually involve the use of ‘if’ statements.

 

The Zero Conditional

 

Zero conditionals are used to talk about facts, such as scientific facts, or when the result of the condition is always true.

• If you heat ice, it melts.

[If + Present Simple, ….. + Present Simple]

 

The Present Simple is used in both clauses of the statement.

 

 

Conditional sentences can be used with other terms instead of ‘if’ such as ‘when’.

The use of ‘when’ also adds certainty to something happening.

• When the monsoon arrives, it floods the streets.

[When + Present Simple, ….+ Present Simple]

 

The First Conditional

 

Unlike the zero conditional that are generally or almost always true, the first conditional could be associated with possible situations or a possibility of something that is about to happen in the future.

 

This could be based on an event that is changing at present or could depend on other events that might happen in the future.

 

In this case, ‘will’ is used in the second clause of the statement.

 

First clause of the statement	Second clause of the statement
If + Present Simple tense	Will / Won’t

 

Example 1:

• If my mother comes home tonight, I will take her out to dinner

Or

• If my other comes home tonight, I’ll take her out to dinner.

[If + Present Simple, ….. + will + infinitive]

 

In the above two conditional types, it is not important whether ‘if’ is placed in the first clause of the statement or the second clause. They mean the same thing and can be swapped in usage.

 

• If I go the market, I buy my groceries.
• I buy my groceries if I go to the market.

OR

• When I see my personal tutor, I discuss my problems with him.
• I discuss my problems with my personal tutor when I see him.

 

Let’s summarize:

ZERO CONDITIONAL: General truths
If + Present Simple	Present Simple
If this thing happens	that thing happens.
FIRST CONDITIONAL: A possible condition and its probable result
If + Present Simple	Future Simple
If this thing happens	that thing will happen.

Conjunction: correlative

 

Correlative conjunctions work together in pairs. We use them to link one part of a sentence to another.

 

The main correlative conjunctions we can use are ‘either… or’, ‘neither… nor’, ‘both… and’ and ‘not only… but also.’

 

‘Either… or’ is used to link two choices. We put ‘either’ before the first choice. We put ‘or’ between the two choices:

• It’s either pink or red. (It could be pink, or it could be red.)
• We can go to either Italy or Spain next year. (We could go to Italy, or we could go to Spain).
• Either John or Henry has your coat. (John might have your coat, or Henry might have your coat).

 

‘Neither… nor’ is used to link two choices that are not available. Again, we put ‘neither’ before, and ‘nor’ between:

• It is neither blue nor green. (It is not blue, and it is not green).
• I am neither hungry nor thirsty. (I am not hungry, and I am not thirsty).
• Neither my sister nor my brother went on holiday. (My sister and my brother did not go on holiday).

Note: When we use ‘either… or’ or ‘neither… nor’, we have two choices. The verb must agree with the second subject. Neither Tom nor Ryan is coming to the party. (Ryan is singular.) NOT: Neither Tom nor Ryan are coming to the party.

 

‘Both… and’ is used to link two things that are equally included. Again, we put ‘both’ before, and ‘and’ between:

• Both Sally and Harry were eating. (Sally was eating. Harry was also eating.)
• I like both cake and chocolate. (I like cake. I also like chocolate.)
• My friend is both clever and funny. (My friend is clever. My friend is also funny.)

Note: When we use ‘both… and’, the verb is always plural because both things are equally included. Both Karen and Lucy are eating.

 

‘Not only… but also’ is similar to ‘both… and’. It is used to link two things that are equally included. Usually, ‘not only’ is before something we expect, and ‘but also’ is before something we do not expect:

• The dress is not only beautiful, but also very comfortable. (The dress is beautiful. It is also very comfortable.)
• I not only like cake, but I also like salad. (I like cake. I also like salad.)
• My friend is not only clever, but also sporty. (My friend is clever. My friend is also sporty.)

 

Note: Remember the ‘either… or’ and ‘neither… nor’ rule? When we use ‘not only… but also’, the verb must also agree with the second subject. Not only my friends, but also my Mother wants to visit. (Mother is singular.) NOT: Not only my friends, but also my Mother want to visit.

 

Conjunctions: contrast

 

Conjunctions join clauses or sentences and coordinate words in the same clause.

 

Contrast conjunctions connect ideas and clauses that contrast. The following words and phrases are contrast conjunctions: but, although, though, even though, even if, while, in spite of, while, whilst, whereas.

 

But

 

‘But‘ is one of the most common contrast conjunctions. We use ‘but‘ to connect ideas that contrast or oppose each other.

 

When we use ‘but’ to join two independent/main clauses (sentences), we must use a comma before ‘but‘. If there aren’t two independent clauses on either side of ‘but’, we don’t need a comma.

• I want to go for a walk, but it’s raining outside.
• That lady is nice but stern.

 

Although/though/even though

 

We use ‘although‘, ‘though‘ and ‘even though‘ to join the main clause to a subordinate clause that contains a surprise or unexpected results.

 

They do not connect two independent (main) clauses. The clause that contains ‘although‘, ‘though‘, or ‘even though‘ is a subordinate clause and cannot stand alone as a full sentence. When the subordinate clause comes first, we use a comma after it.

• Although I hate camping, I am going hiking and camping this weekend.
• Though she waited for almost an hour, her friend never showed up.
• Even though I got ready to go, we decided to just stay at home.

 

When the subordinate clause comes after the main clause, we do not need a comma.

• I am going hiking and camping this weekend although I hate camping.
• Her friend never showed up though she waited for almost an hour.
• We decided to just stay at home even though I got ready to go.

 

Both ‘although‘ and ‘though‘ have the same meaning, however, ‘although‘ is more formal and more common in writing. We can use ‘even + though‘ to add emphasis to ‘though‘.

 

Even if

 

‘Even if‘ is similar to ‘even though‘ and ‘although‘/’though‘, and it is used in the same way. ‘Even if‘ means “whether or not.”

 

Again, the clause with ‘even if‘ is a subordinate clause, so we must use a comma if the subordinate clause comes before the main clause.

• Even if you run fast, you’ll still be late for school.
• I’ll be happy even if I’m not chosen.

 

In spite of

 

We use ‘in spite of‘ to show unexpected results. The clause containing ‘in spite of‘ is a subordinate clause.

 

Just like with the previous conjunctions, when the subordinate clause comes first, we use a comma after it. ‘In spite of‘ is followed by either a gerund (‘-ing’ form of the verb) or a noun phrase.

• In spite of having a bad teacher, the students all did well on their test.
• The baby slept well in spite of all the noise.
• I enjoyed the party in spite of having a headache.

 

While/whilst/whereas

 

We use ‘while‘, ‘whilst‘, and ‘whereas‘ to join contrasting ideas. ‘While‘ and ‘whilst‘ mean the same thing though ‘while‘ is more common and ‘whilst‘ is more formal and more archaic English. They both mean ‘at/during the same time that something else is happening,’ or ‘in contrast with.’

• While/Whilst I prefer to eat at the table, my husband prefers to eat in front of the television. (contrast)
• You get some onions while/whilst I get the meat. (at the same time)

 

You can see that we use a comma when ‘while‘/’whilst‘ joins contrasting ideas regardless of whether the subordinate clause comes first or second. However, we do not use a comma when ‘while‘/’whilst‘ is used to mean “during the same time.”

 

We cannot use ‘whereas‘ to mean ‘at the same time.’ We only use ‘whereas‘ to join contrasting ideas. We use a comma with ‘whereas‘ in the same way that we do for ‘although‘/’though‘ and other subordinating clauses.

• Whereas I like to get up early and go for a run, my partner likes to sleep in and go for a run in the evening.
• John spends his money right away whereas Joan saves hers for a rainy day.

 

Note: Some suggest that a comma should be used before ‘although’, ‘though’, ‘whereas’, (and ‘while’ when it is used as an adverb of concession and not to mean ‘at the same time as’), when the subordinate clause follows the main clause. John spends his money right away, whereas Joan saves hers for a rainy day.

 

Prepositions: cause and result

 

Prepositions are words that connect and build relationships between other words, like nouns and verbs. One type of relationship is cause and effect (or result).

 

In the example below, ‘because of ‘ is a prepositional phrase. The first part of the sentence is the cause, and the second part is the effect. 

• Because of his criminal record, he couldn’t find a job.  
• Hard work leads to success.

In the above example, the preposition ‘to‘ is added to the verb ‘lead‘ to create the cause and effect meaning. Hard work is the cause, and success is the effect.  

 

In the example below, the preposition ‘for‘ is joined by the reason to create the cause and effect meaning. In this sentence, horrible traffic is the cause and the late arrival is the effect.

• The reason for my late arrival is the horrible traffic.  

 

Here are more examples of prepositional phrases that can create the cause and effect meaning.

 

Compound Preposition Phrase	Example
As a result of	As a result of his hard work, he received a very generous scholarship.
Because of	Because of the storm, I could not leave my house.
As a consequence of	As a consequence of not going to class, he failed the exam.
Due to	Due to his poor attendance, he was not able to take the final exam.

 

Here are examples of verbs followed by prepositions that create the same meaning.

 

Verb + preposition	Example
To lead to	Her drug abuse is going to lead to going to jail.
To result from	His difficulty at school results from his unfortunate situation at home.
To result in	The bus accident resulted in the deaths of 15 people.

 

Finally, here are examples of nouns followed by prepositions that create the cause effect meaning.

 

Noun + preposition	Example
Reason for	The reason for his poor grades is his lack of motivation.
Result of	A result of our decision not to buy food was that we ran out of food.
Effect of	An effect of the long winter was an increase in the number of people with depression.
Causes of	The cause of the fire was determined to be a cigarette.
Consequence of	A consequence of not paying your taxes is not having access to public services.

 

Note: After prepositions, it is always necessary to use a noun. This may require changing a verb from a full form (‘pay‘) to the gerund form (‘paying‘). A consequence of not paying your bills on time is having your electricity cut off.

 

Adverbs: also, as well, too, so, either, neither

 

Also, as well, too

 

These three words mean ‘in addition’. We use them in positive sentences:

• I like basketball and I also like football.
• I like basketball and I like football too.
• I like basketball and I like football as well.

 

The main difference is their position in a sentence:

 

‘Also’ usually comes before the main verb or after the verb ‘to be’.

 

‘Too’ and ‘as well’ are usually at the end of the sentence.

 

‘Too’ and ‘as well’ are common in spoken and informal British English. (‘As well’ sounds formal or old-fashioned in American English.)

 

So

 

We can also use ‘so’ to mean ‘in addition’ in positive sentences:

• I like basketball and so does my brother.

(This means the same as ‘I like basketball and my brother likes basketball too’.)

 

Note: The structure here is ‘so + auxiliary verb + subject’. NOT: I like basketball and so likes my brother.

 

In spoken English, we can say:

 

I can swim.

• I can swim too.
• I can too.
• Me too.
• So can I.

 

Not either, neither & neither… nor

 

– In negative sentences, we can use ‘not… either’:

• My sister doesn’t like basketball and she doesn’t like football either.

(NOT: She doesn’t like basketball and she doesn’t like basketball too.)

• She can’t dance and she can’t sing either.

 

– We can express the same idea with ‘neither’. The word order is inverted after ‘neither’:

• She doesn’t like basketball and neither does she like football.
• She can’t dance and neither can she sing.

 

– We can also express the same idea with ‘neither… nor’:

• She likes neither basketball nor football.
• She can neither dance nor sing.

 

– We can also use ‘neither’ like this:

• My sister doesn’t like basketball and neither does my mother.

(This means the same as ‘My sister doesn’t like basketball and my mother doesn’t like basketball either’.)

 

(NOT: I like basketball and so likes my brother.)

 

Note: The structure here is ‘neither + auxiliary verb + subject’. NOT: She doesn’t like basketball and neither likes my mother.

 

In spoken English, we can say:

 

I can’t play the guitar.

• I can’t play the guitar either.
• I can’t either.
• Me either.  (US English)
• Me neither.  (UK English)
• Neither can I.

 

Be careful not to use two ‘negative words’ together: She can’t sing and she can’t dance either. (NOT: She can’t sing and she can’t dance neither.) I can’t play the guitar. I can’t either. (NOT: I can’t neither.) Neither can I. (NOT: Neither can’t I.)