Clauses of cause, result, and comparison

 

Clauses of cause are used to show why something happens. These clauses begin with conjunctions like ‘because’, ‘since’, and ‘as’:

 

• I listen to classical music because it sounds beautiful.
• Since you’re so kind to me, I will help you.
• As it was so sunny, he walked to the park.

Note: ‘because’ is more common in informal conversation than ‘since’  or ‘as.’

 

Clauses of result tell us about consequences. They often begin with ‘so…that’, and ‘such…that’.

 

We usually put an adjective between ‘so’ and ‘that.’ We can put an adjective and a noun (or just a noun) between ‘such’ and ‘that’:

 

• I was so tired that I couldn’t stay awake.
• The meal was so delicious that made it again the next day.
• Uma is such a good runner that nobody can catch her.

 

Clauses of comparison are used to compare two things or ideas. They often begin with ‘than’ or ‘as…as’:

 

• My brother is older than my sister.
• She is as beautiful as her mother.
• I am stronger than I look.
• That restaurant is not as good as it used to be.

 

Note: We can use ‘than‘ to introduce a clause after a comparative adjective, adverb or noun phrase. The clause is usually reduced or one with a substitute verb ‘do‘: The house was bigger than we had imagined. He always spent more money than George did. (more money than George spent.)

 

Note: We can use a that-clause after a superlative (‘that’ can be omitted): It was the biggest fire (that) anyone had ever seen.

Adverbial clauses of time, place, condition, and manner

 

Clauses of time tell us about when something happens. We can use conjunctions like ‘when’, ‘whenever’, ‘before’, ‘after’, ‘as’, ‘while’ ‘until’, ‘as soon as’, and ‘since’:

 

• I stopped running when I saw my friend.
• Annie gets excited whenever she sees a dog.
• I’ll do my homework before I go back to school.
• Harry went home after the movie ended.
• I watched my mother as she prepared the dinner.
• He washed the dishes while his girlfriend vacuumed the floor.
• The shop is open until 4pm.
• I will come over as soon as I finish eating.
• Gemma hasn’t stopped working since she arrived.

 

Clauses of place tell us about where something happens. We can use ‘where’, ‘wherever’, and ‘everywhere’:

 

• Wherever I go, I always see McDonalds.
• I’m not sure where she lives.
• We met kind people everywhere we went.

 

Note: clauses beginning with ‘whenever’, ‘wherever’, and ‘everywhere’ show that something always happens in a place or at a certain time.

 

Clauses of condition tell us about the circumstances under which something happens. These clauses often begin with ‘if’, ‘unless’, or ‘provided that’:

 

• I only watch TV if my favorite show is on.
• He won’t go to university unless he studies very hard.
• You can play the game, provided that you follow the rules.

 

Clauses of manner show us how something happens. They usually begin with ‘like’, ‘as though’ or ‘as if’:

 

• She looked as though she was in pain.
• Ryan walked past as if he hadn’t seen us.
• He talked to me like I was a child.

 

 

Adverbs: position

 

We can use adverbs at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of a sentence. Different types of adverbs are used in different positions.

 

Adverbs of manner are usually used at the end of a sentence:

• Thomas was chewing loudly.
• The girl danced beautifully.
• Leanne closed the door quietly.

 

We often use adverbs of place at the end of a sentence. In writing, we sometimes use them at the beginning too:

• They are sitting over there.
• The dog is running around outside.
• Inside, there were wooden floors.

 

Adverbs of time are usually used at the end of a sentence. We sometimes use them at the beginning, to make them the focus of the sentence:

• We’re going to the zoo today.
• I washed my car yesterday.
• Tomorrow, I am flying to Greece.

 

Adverbs of frequency are normally used in the middle of a sentence, between the subject and the main verb. We sometimes use them at the beginning or the end too:

• We usually eat out on Fridays.
• Sometimes I go cycling.
• I don’t travel very often.

 

Note: ‘Always’ and ‘never’ are not used at the beginning of a sentence. They are usually used in the middle, between the subject and the main verb: I always go on holiday in July. NOT: Always I go on holiday in July. I never miss the bus. NOT: Never I miss the bus.

 

Adverbs of degree are usually used in the middle of a sentence, between the subject and the main verb. They can also be used between an auxiliary verb and an adjective. They can be used between the main verb and an adverb of manner too:

• I really enjoyed the show.
• He is very scared.
• Veronica can run extremely quickly.

 

We often use adverbs of probability in the middle of a sentence, between the auxiliary verb and the main verb or an adjective. Sometimes we use them at the beginning of a sentence:

• I will probably go to the party.
• I can certainly help you.
• Maybe it will rain.

Future Perfect Passive

 

Future Perfect Passive is used to talk about actions or events that will be finished by a certain moment in the future.

• Don’t worry, all work will have been done by 4 p.m.
• We are late. By the time we arrive to the stadium, the game will have been finished.
• All guests will have been brought to the event before it starts.

 

To make statements with the Future Perfect Passive, use:

will have been + Past Participle form of the verb

 

Singular	Plural
I will have been taken You will have been taken He/she/it will have been taken	We will have been taken You will have been taken They will have been taken

 

• Could you please return in 10 minutes? Your room will have been cleaned by then.
• Will my workplace have been prepared when I come to the office tomorrow morning?
• I took my car in for service, but I think it won’t have been fixed even by Friday.

 

 

Past Perfect Passive

 

Past Perfect Passive is used to talk about actions or events that happened before some moment or another action in the past:

• The concert had been rescheduled, so the spectators had to wait for another week.
• All tickets had been sold out before we even heard about the concert.
• The dinner had been cooked already when Jeffrey came home. 

 

To make statements with the Past Perfect Passive, use:

had been + the Past Participle form of the verb

 

Singular	Plural
I had been promoted You had been promoted He/she/it had been promoted	We had been promoted You had been promoted They had been promoted

 

• Peter had been fined for speeding twice during the last month, and his driving manner became more careful.
• Had the bank been robbed before the shop was robbed?
• The fish hadn’t been cooked properly, so we sent it back to the kitchen.

 

Present Perfect Passive

 

We use the Present Perfect Passive to talk about actions in the past that still have an effect on the present moment.

• My new bicycle has been delivered already, so now I can ride it all day long.
• Your dog looks sad, has it been fed today?
• Old chairs in the hall have been replaced with the new ones.   

 

To make statements with the Present Perfect Passive, use:

have/has been + the Past Participle form of the verb

 

Singular	Plural
I have been seen You have been seen He/she/it has been seen	We have been seen You have been seen They have been seen

 

• This house has been sold to some foreigners.
• What actor has been chosen for the leading role in your new movie?
• This old violin hasn’t been played for ages.

 

 

Past Continuous Passive

 

Past continuous passive is used to talk about actions that were ongoing at a particular moment in the past. The emphasis is on the process.

• When Jack arrived to the workshop his car  was still being repaired.
• The students were being taught grammar all day long.
• The dancers were being watched by a jury of experts.

 

To make statements with the Past Continuous Passive, use:

was/were + being + the Past Participle form of the verb

 

Singular	Plural
I was being listened You were being listened He/she/it was being listened	We were being listened You were being listened They were being listened

 

• The new operator was being shown how to use the processing machine.
• What music was being played when we came to the park?
• The streets were not being cleaned throughout the whole last week.

 

 

 

Present Continuous Passive

 

Present continuous passive is used to talk about some ongoing actions performed at the moment of speaking or around it.

• Nick’s order is being delivered to the nearest store.
• Our dinner is being cooked as we speak.
• Visitors are being checked in at the hotel.

 

To make statements with the Present Continuous Passive, use:

am/is/are + being + the Past Participle form of the verb

 

Singular	Plural
I am being taught You are being taught He/she/it is being taught	We are being taught You are being taught They are being taught

 

• My car is at the garage, it is being repaired.
• What houses are being built opposite the park?
• The work is not being performed at the moment because the customer did not pay in time.

 

 

 

Reported speech: passive reporting structures

 

It is thought (that)… / It is said (that)…

 

Impersonal expressions are often used in informal language:

• People think (that)…
• They say (that)…
• They expect (that)…

 

However, passive structures are often used in news reports.

• It is thought (that)….
• It is said (that)…
• It is expected (that)…

 

Consider the following examples:

• People think that the clothing chain ‘Looking Good’ is in trouble.
• They say that the shop is offering huge discounts.
• They expect that the company will close next month.

 

• It is thought that the clothing chain ‘Looking Good’ is in trouble.
• It is said that the shop is offering huge discounts.
• It is expected that the company will close next month.

 

The structure here is:

It + verb ‘to be’ + Past Participle of the reporting verb + that + clause

 

Verbs which are often used in this way include:

assume, believe, consider, estimate, expect, hope, know, report, say, think

 

The company is thought to be…

 

We can also use this passive structure:

• ‘Looking Good’ is thought to be in trouble.
• The shop is said to be offering huge discounts.
• The company is expected to close next month.

 

The structure here is:

Subject + verb ‘to be’ + Past Participle of reporting verb + to infinitive clause

 

When we are talking about a past action, the structure is:

Subject + verb ‘to be’ + Past Participle of reporting verb + to Perfect infinitive clause

 

• They believe that competition from online companies was the main reason for its failure.
• Competition from online companies is believed to have been the main reason for its failure.

 

• They estimate that the company lost about $1million last year.
• The company is estimated to have lost about $1 million last year.

Adverbial clauses of contrast and purpose

 

Clauses of contrast

 

An adverbial clause (a dependent clause) is a group of words which plays the role of an adverb. There are different kinds of adverb clauses: time, place, contrast, purpose, comparison or degree, manner, cause and result, condition.

 

Clauses of contrast (or concession) are used to show the difference between two statements. We can use ‘although’, ‘though’, ‘even though’, ‘in spite of’ and ‘despite’.

 

‘Although’ can be used at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence. It is followed by a subject and a verb:

• Although it rained, they enjoyed their walk.
• They enjoyed their walk, although it rained.

 

‘Though’ is used in the similar way to ‘although’, but it is more informal. In spoken English, ‘though’ is more common than ‘although’:

• Though it was expensive, I enjoyed the meal.
• I enjoyed the meal, though it was expensive.

 

‘Even though’ is a little stronger than ‘though’ and ‘although’. It can also be used at beginning or in the middle of a sentence. Again, it is followed by a subject and a verb:

•  Even though I was full, I couldn’t stop eating.
• I couldn’t stop eating, even though I was full.

 

‘In spite of’ is used at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence. It is followed by a noun, a pronoun or a gerund (-ing):

• In spite of the pain, Harry finished the race.
• Harry finished the race, in spite of the pain.

 

‘Despite’ is also used at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence. Again, it is followed by a noun, a pronoun or a gerund (-ing):

• Despite the snow, I drove to my grandma’s house.
• I drove to my grandma’s house, despite the snow.

 

Note: Do not use ‘of’ with ‘despite’. For example: NOT: I drove to my grandma’s house, despite of the snow. I drove to my grandma’s house, despite the snow.   You must use ‘of’ with ‘in spite of’. For example: NOT: I drove to my grandma’s house, in spite the snow. I drove to my grandma’s house, in spite of the snow.

 

Clauses of purpose

 

Clauses of purpose are used to show why something is happening. We can use ‘to’, ‘for’, ‘in order to’, ‘so as to’ and ‘so that’.

 

‘To’ is often used to show why something is happening. We use the infinitive form of the verb:

• My mother went out to buy some milk.
• I’m going to Spain to see my friend.
• I’m going outside to find some flowers.

 

‘For’ is used to show the exact purpose of something. It is followed by a noun or a gerund (-ing):

• We went to the supermarket for bread.
• The mop is for cleaning the floor.
• She went out for a meal.

 

‘In order to’ is more formal than ‘to’. Again, we use the infinitive form of the verb:

• I did some research in order to find the best music player.
• A meeting was arranged in order to discuss the team’s progress.
• Harry studied all night in order to pass his English exam.

 

‘So as to’ is also more formal than ‘to’. Again, we use the infinitive form of the verb:

• I bought a smaller car so as to save money.
• Elliot moved to a new house so as to be closer to his parents.
• She left early so as to be at home with her family.

 

Note: When we want to say something negative using ‘in order to’ or ‘so as to’, we can put ‘not’ before the ‘to’. For example: I woke up early in order not to miss the bus. I woke up early so as not to miss the bus.

 

‘So that’ is paired with a subject and a modal verb like ‘could’, ‘would’, ‘can’ or ‘will’:

• I gave her my phone number so that she could call me.
• I’m going out so that I can buy fruit.
• I did some exercise so that I would feel better.